The most common programming model for high-performance cluster systems is message-passing. MPI [10] is established as a de-facto standard for message-passing as it is based on the consensus of more than 40 participating organizations, including vendors, researchers, software library developers, and users. MPI provides a portable, efficient, and flexible standard for message-passing. Note that it is only a definition of an interface, that has been implemented by several developers for different architectures. Nowadays there exist several implementations whose routines or functions can be directly called from C, C++, Fortran or Java code.
Pthreads Programming Oreilly Pdf 28
Code is often written in a serialized (or sequential) fashion. What is meant by the term serialized? Ignoring instruction level parallelism (ILP), code is executed sequentially, one after the next in a monolithic fashion, without regard to possibly more available processors the program could exploit. Often, there are potential parts of a program where performance can be improved through the use of threads. With increasing popularity of machines with symmetric multiprocessing (largely due in part to the rise of multicore processors), programming with threads is a valuable skill set worth learning. Why is it that most programs are sequential? One guess would be that students are not taught how to program in a parallel fashion until later or in a difficult-to-follow manner. To make matters worse, multithreading non-trivial code is difficult. Careful analysis of the problem, and then a good design is not an option for multithreaded programming; it is an absolute must. We will dive into the world of threads with a little bit of background first. We will examine thread synchronization primitives and then a tutorial on how to use POSIX pthreads will be presented.
Semaphores are another type of synchronization primitive that come in two flavors: binary and counting. Binary semaphores act much like simple mutexes, while counting semaphores can behave as recursive mutexes. Counting semaphores can be initialized to any arbitrary value which should depend on how many resources you have available for that particular shared data. Many threads can obtain the lock simultaneously until the limit is reached. This is referred to as lock depth. Semaphores are more common in multiprocess programming (i.e. it's usually used as a synch primitive between processes).
Now that we have a good foundation of thread concepts, lets talk about a particular threading implementation, POSIX pthreads. The pthread library can be found on almost any modern POSIX-compliant OS (and even under Windows, see pthreads-win32). Note that it is not possible to cover more than an introduction on pthreads within the context of this short overview and tutorial. pthreads concepts such as thread scheduling classes, thread-specific data, thread canceling, handling signals and reader/writer locks are not covered here. Please see the Resources section for more information. If you are programming in C++, I highly recommend evaluating the Boost C++ Libraries. One of the libraries is the Thread library which provides a common interface for portable multithreading. It is assumed that you have a good understanding of the C programming language. If you do not or need to brush up, please review basic C (especially pointers and arrays). Here are some resources.
There are various template libraries available that ease implementation of multithreading in a (semi-)portable fashion. For those programming in C++, you may want to look at Boost, Intel Threading Building Blocks (TBB) and POCO.
This tutorial has explored the very basics of multithreaded programming. What about multiprocess programming? These topics are beyond the scope of this document, but to perform cross-process synchronization, one would use some form of IPC: pipes, semaphores, message queues, or shared memory. Of all of the forms of IPC, shared memory is usually the fastest (excluding doors). You can use mmap(), POSIX (e.g., shm_open()) or SysV (e.g., shmget()) semantics when dealing with cross-process resource management, IPC and synchronization. For those interested in shared memory programming in C++, I recommend looking at Boost.Interprocess first.
It is difficult to cover more than an introduction to threads with this short tutorial and overview. For more in-depth coverage on threads (like thread scheduling classes, thread-specific data (thread local storage), thread canceling, handling signals and reader/writer locks) and pthreads programming, I recommend these books:
W3Techs reports that, as of January 2023[update], "PHP is used by 77.8% of all the websites whose server-side programming language we know."[18] It also reports that only 8% of PHP users use the currently supported 8.x versions. Most use unsupported PHP 7, more specifically 7.4, and even PHP 5 has 23% of the use, also not supported with security updates, known to have serious security vulnerabilities.
Early PHP was not intended to be a new programming language, and grew organically, with Lerdorf noting in retrospect: "I don't know how to stop it, there was never any intent to write a programming language [...] I have absolutely no idea how to write a programming language, I just kept adding the next logical step on the way."[23] A development team began to form and, after months of work and beta testing, officially released PHP/FI 2 in November 1997.
On 1 July 2004, PHP 5 was released, powered by the new Zend Engine II.[10] PHP 5 included new features such as improved support for object-oriented programming, the PHP Data Objects (PDO) extension (which defines a lightweight and consistent interface for accessing databases), and numerous performance enhancements.[31] In 2008, PHP 5 became the only stable version under development. Late static binding had been missing from previous versions of PHP, and was added in version 5.3.[32][33] 2ff7e9595c
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